The Invisible Soldiers of World War I

In 1914 the world became plunged into a conflict that would be known as the war to end all wars. World War I was a transformative crossroads in African American history. What started as an apparently far off European clash soon turned into a war with progressive ramifications for the social, monetary, and political eventual fate of black people. The war straightforwardly affected every single African American. The Great Migration was the mass exodus of more than 6 million African Americans from the rural South to the cities of the North, Midwest and West from about 1916 to 1970. Many were forced from their homes by unfair economic opportunities and harsh segregationist laws, many blacks chose to head north where they took advantage of the need for factory workers that arose during the outbreak of the First World War (Editors 2010). With the United States entering the war production kicked into high gear, recruiters promised incentives for African Americans to come north, to the surprise of many racist white Southerners. Black newspapers—particularly the widely read Chicago Defender—published advertisements informing people of the opportunities available in the cities of the North and West, along with first-person accounts of success, one wrote.

I am enclosing a clipping of a lynching again which speaks for itself. I do wish there could be sufficient pressure brought about to have federal investigation of such work. I wrote you a few days ago if you could furnish me with the addresses of some firms or co-opporations that needed common labor. So many of our people here are almost starving. The government is feeding quite a number here would go anywhere to better their conditions. If you can do anything for us write me as early as possible.' Scott, Emmett. 1916-1918. 'Letters of Negro Migrants.' Journal of Negro History.

When jobs were unable to meet the demand with existing European immigrants and white women alone, northern businesses looked to black southerners to join the workforce. The chance of higher wages and better working conditions made thousands of black southerners leave their agricultural lives and flock to start a new life in major industrial centers. Racial discrimination was a part of the experience for black World War I servicemen. They were not allowed to join the Marines and Army aviation corps and were restricted to serving as cooks or stewards in the Navy. It was assumed by many that blacks were less capable of being able to handle combat duty than whites due to their intelligence and their cowardice, so in order to minimize the number of black combat troops, the four standing black regiments already in the Army at the time were the 24th and 25th Infantry division; 9th and 10th Calvary whom were all in existence since 1870, were assigned to stay in the United States during the war. When the United States declared war against Germany in April 1917, the US War Department realized that their standing Army of 126,000 men would not be enough to fight and ensure victory overseas. The volunteer system proved to be insufficient in raising an Army, so on May 18, 1917 Congress passed the Selective Service Act that require all male citizens between the ages of 21 and 31 to register for the draft. Even before the act was passed, African American males from all over the country had joined the war effort (Bryan n.d.). Only the newly formed 93rd Division, which consisted of National Guard units from several different states and one regiment of draftees, and the 93nd Division, composed completely of draftees, saw combat in France. The four regiments of the 93rd were assigned to the French Army becoming the only American unit completely integrated into a foreign army; they even went as far as to wear French uniforms and used French weapons (Mercer 2003).

During World War I over 380,000 African Americans served in the wartime Army. Approximately 200,000 of these were sent to Europe. More than half of those sent abroad were assigned to labor and dockworker battalions, but they performed essential duties doing construction and engineering such as building roads, bridges, and trenches in support of the front-line battles. Roughly 42,000 saw combat. Although they were not as respected as any of their white brothers in arms involved in the war effort, African American combat troops, in many respects, were much better off than the laborers. 92nd and 93rd Divisions had two completely different experiences while fighting the Great War. The 92nd Division was created in October 1917 and put under the command of BG Charles C. Ballou, who had organized the first African American officer candidate school. Organized in a manner like the other American divisions, the 92nd was made up of four infantry regiments, three field artillery regiments, a trench mortar battery, three machine gun battalions, a signal battalion, an engineer regiment, an engineer train, and various support units. After some three months of labor constructing nearby railways to move supplies forward, the Soldiers learned that they had orders to join the French 16th Division for three weeks of combat training (Editors 2010).

They also learned they had a new regimental number becoming known as the 369th Infantry Regiment. Not that they really cared because they still carried their nickname from New York, the Black Rattlers, and carried their regimental flag of the 15th New York Infantry everywhere they went in France. While the 369th Infantry would become part of the U.S. Army's 92nd Infantry Division, it would be assigned to fight with French forces. This solved the dilemma for Pershing on where he should put black soldiers. In March, the regiment finally received its Federal designation and was reorganized and reequipped according to the French model. That summer, the 369th was integrated into the French 161st Division and began combat operations. Dubbing themselves “Men of Bronze,” the soldiers of the 369th were lucky in many ways compared to other African American military units in France in 1918 (Mikkelsen 2007).

After gaining valuable lessons and experience in trench warfare from their French partners, the Soldiers of the 369th finally had their chance to prove their metal as combat troops when they entered the front lines, holding their line against the last German spring offensive near Chateau-Thierry. Their value was not lost on the French, and the regiment continued to fight alongside French forces, participating in the Aisne-Marne counter offensive in the summer of 1918 alongside the French 162nd Infantry Division. The Hell Fighters from Harlem earned the respect of many, despite their difficult start (Goldenburg 2018).

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The Hell Fighters had spent over six months in combat, perhaps the longest of any American unit in the war, meanwhile the 369th suffered approximately fifteen hundred casualties but received only nine hundred replacements. Unit histories claimed they were the first unit to cross the Rhine into Germany; they fought bravely and ferociously well at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood, earning the epithet “Hell Fighters” from their German adversaries. Nevertheless,

the lack of reinforcements along with no breaks from the line took its toll, leaving the unit exhausted and worn out by the armistice in November. (Mikkelsen 2007). During its service during World War I, the regiment is credited with participation in the Champagne-Marne, Meuse Argonne, Champagne 1918, and Alsace 1918 campaigns.

The 369th Infantry Soldiers, nicknamed the 'Harlem Hellfighters', spent 191 days in the front-line trenches and earned a regimental French Croix de Guerre with Silver Star and Streamer embroidered Meuse-Argonne, and more than 170 Croix de Guerre medals during World War I. But even despite all these obstacles, these men fought bravely facing their enemy head on with unwavering courage. One such man was Henry Johnson, born William Henry Johnson in Winston Salem, North Carolina, Johnson moved to New York as a teenager. He worked various jobs - as a chauffeur, soda mixer, laborer in a coal yard, and a redcap porter at Albany's Union Station. He enlisted in the U.S. Army, June 5, 1917, and was assigned to Company C, 15th New York (Colored) Infantry Regiment - an all-black National Guard unit that would later become the 369th Infantry Regiment (N/A, Medal of Honor n.d.). The 369th Infantry Regiment was first ordered into battle in 1918, and Johnson and his unit were brigaded with a French army colonial unit in front-line combat. Johnson served one tour of duty to the western edge of the Argonne Forest in France's Champagne region, from 1918-1919.

While on night sentry duty, May 15, 1918, Johnson and a fellow Soldier, Pvt. Needham Roberts, received a surprise attack by a German raiding party consisting of at least 12 soldiers.

While under intense enemy fire and despite receiving significant wounds, Johnson mounted a brave retaliation resulting in several enemy casualties. When his fellow Soldier was badly wounded, Johnson prevented him from being taken prisoner by German forces. Johnson exposed himself to by advancing from his position to engage an enemy soldier in hand-to-hand combat. Wielding only a bolo knife and being seriously wounded, Johnson continued fighting, took his Bolo knife and stabbed it through an enemy soldier's head. Johnson later won the Medal of Honor and the citation read:

“For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty:

Private Johnson distinguished himself by acts of gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a member of Company C, 369th Infantry Regiment, 93rd Division, American Expeditionary Forces, during combat operations against the enemy on the front lines of the Western Front in France on May 15, 1918. Private Johnson and another soldier were on sentry duty at a forward outpost when they received a surprise attack from a German raiding party consisting of at least 12 soldiers. While under intense enemy fire and despite receiving significant wounds, Private Johnson mounted a brave retaliation, resulting in several enemy casualties. When his fellow soldier was badly wounded, Private Johnson prevented him from being taken prisoner by German forces. Private Johnson exposed himself to grave danger by advancing from his position to engage an enemy soldier in hand-to-hand combat. Wielding only a knife and gravely wounded himself, Private Johnson continued fightin and took his Bolo knife and stabbed it through an enemy soldier’s head. Displaying great courage, Private Johnson held back the enemy force until they retreated…