The chosen issue for this paper is cognitive changes in very old age. Cognition is the process of gaining knowledge through cultural experiences. This essay will focus on the aged 80 years and over and examine the cognitive function and reasons for cognitive decline in very old age. Jung and Haier’s (2007) parieto-frontal integration theory will research studies of human intelligence and reasoning. Christensen (2001) will define crystallized intelligence and examine a longitudinal study of crystallized intelligence, speed, and memory, as well as the results from this study. Kail and Cavanaugh (2014) will define plasticity in individuals. Ball, Berch, Helmers, Jobe, and Leveck (2002) will examine the plasticity of the brain and whether it changes over time. Miyake, Friedman, Emerson et al. (2000) defines executive control, and Cicerone, Berch, Helmers, Jobe, and Leveck (2006) research the processes of executive control. Nararro (2009) examines whether computer programs contribute to improving the cognitive functioning of very old people. Christensen (2011) studies research if poor health is related to cognitive decline in very old people. Anstey and Christensen (2000) research through longitudinal studies whether health and disease in very old aged people cause cognitive change. Christensen also researches three studies on whether there is an association between poor health and cognitive decline. Earles and Salthouse (1995) examine whether health has an impact on the cognitive speed of older people. Singer, Verhaeghen, Ghisletta, Lindenberger, and Verhaegen (2003) examine perceptual speed, memory, and fluency of people aged 70-100 using the Berlin Aging Study. Finally, the conclusion highlights the causes, transitions, and reasons for very old people and their cognitive function.
Jung and Haier (2007) developed the parieto-frontal integration theory based on 37 neuroimaging studies with 1557 participants who were tested for intelligence and reasoning. This involves the cerebral cortex in the brain, which interacts with the parietal lobe and frontal brain region. When this is linked with the white matter, this causes individual differences in reasoning in humans. It is true of very old age because their intelligence and reasoning have declined due to the interaction between the cerebral cortex, parietal lobe, frontal brain, and the nerve fibers that have deteriorated, this causes individuals as their intelligence and reasoning, to be affected due to these interactions. Hoffnung et al. define intelligence as the general ability to learn from experience, the ability to reason abstractly especially using language, and the ability to integrate old and new knowledge.
Cabeza and Nyberg (2000) reviewed brain function from cognitive neuroimaging of brain activity by lobe at the Brodmann areas (visual cortex). Humans process cognitive data through auditory and visionary methods. The temporal lobes and occipital lobes are significant to the early processing of sensory information. The sensory, perceptual, processing moves to the parietal cortex, mainly the supramarginal, superior parietal, where imagery, concepts, and ideas occur. This relates to very old people, as when their vision and hearing deteriorate, this affects the senses in the brain. Which causes the processing of this information to be affected and affects the person’s perception, thoughts, and ideas.
Cabeza and Nyberg (2000) found the parietal cortex interacts with frontal regions of the brain and is then used to examine the results of a particular problem. The anterior cingulate limits response selection and other important responses, and it is important for the white matter to pass fast data without errors from the posterior to the frontal brain. Hale et al. (1987) found an association with age, white matter, and cognitive decline. This makes the brain processes slow down. This relates to very old aged people, as this means age is a major factor in cognitive deterioration and reduction in functioning cognitive processes.
According to Christensen (2001), memory has two parts, procedural is long-term memory, and declarative is short-term memory. Procedural is defined as memory that isn’t recollected from an experience, such as a learned skill: walking. Declarative memory is information an individual recall, such as facts or events. Working memory is defined as temporarily holding information available for processing. Zelinski and Lewis (2003) found working memory consists of lists of words, speech, reasoning, and more, as working memory declines, these tasks decline as well. The reasoning is the process an individual user concludes. This relates to very old people as their working memory declines, it makes verbal communication and coming to conclusions more difficult as they are also declining.
Kail and Cavanaugh (2014) define plasticity as skills individuals acquire or improve on through the repetition of tasks, plasticity ranges from very young babies to very old aged people. Ball et al. (2002) found plasticity is the brain’s ability to change throughout life. This relates to this case as it supports that very old people can learn new abilities throughout their lifespan, such as training to improve perception.
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Miyake, Friedman, Emerson et al. (2000) defined executive control as the ability an individual has to process and act on incoming information; this includes updating and changing thoughts and actions. According to Cicerone, Levin, Stuss et al. (2006), executive control is the ability to plan, monitor, activate, switch, control competing responses, and manipulate information in awareness. Salthouse (1996) defined processing speed as the time it takes for a person to gain insight and apply a decision; this decline with age. Cicerone, Levin, Stuss et al. found processing speed is an important process in cognitive function, but this decline with age. This means very old people process new information at a slower rate, and process and act on new information at a slower rate.
Navarro et al. (2009) research elderly people using computer programs to increase their cognitive function: attention, language, perception, and memory. A program that has been developed for elderly people is the Brain Training Program. This relates to elderly people as computer programs can increase their attention span, being able to converse more rapidly, understand their perceptions, and able to memorize more effectively. Navarro et al. argue there are three ways to maintain cognitive function in the elderly: to keep physically and mentally active and to have good self-esteem. This relates to elderly people as they can slow the effect of cognition declining by keeping physically and mentally fit and having good self-esteem.
According to Christensen (2001), crystallized intelligence is defined as the continual learning of an individual throughout their lifetime. Christensen conducted a longitudinal study in Queanbeyan, Canberra with 887 participants aged 70 – 93 years. These participants were examined in 1991 for crystallized intelligence, speed, and memory. In this study, there were four aged groups. The results have shown that cognitive speed and memory performance were found to decline with age; in all four aged groups, crystallized intelligence had high levels of functioning throughout their lifespan. Crystallized intelligence declined a little in the four groups with participants older than 85 years. Memory declined considerably and increased at older ages, cognitive speed declined considerably in all age groups. This relates to very old age people, in which case cognitive speed and memory performance decline with age. Crystallized intelligence was at high levels of functioning and declined slightly with people over 85 years old. Memory declines in very old age.
Past research by Anstey and Christensen (2000) measures the impact health and disease have on aging from eight longitudinal studies. Elderly people reported their poor health and cognitive change. Two of the eight studies found health reasons for cognitive changes. Anstey and Christensen noted that lung function, glucose tolerance, atrial fibrillation, and cardiovascular disease were factors in cognition declining. The results have shown that poor health was associated with cognition declining faster and was partially responsible for the decline in cognition.
Christensen’s (2001) research of three studies of aging individuals did not find any convincing association between poor health and cognitive decline. One of these studies predicts there is a link between poor health and cognitive decline. Another one of the studies reports that high health was related to cognition improvement. There was a convincing connection found between lung function and worse cognitive outcomes. This relates to very old aged people, there is no real link between poor health and cognitive decline in very old aged people.
In contrast, Salthouse and Earles (1995) examined the role of health and the effects of cognitive speed on aging people. The measures are statistics from individuals who rated themselves on their health before and afterward. The results from individuals rated 15% and 20% as related to changes in their cognition, which means health reasons were not the main reason for individuals’ decline in cognition. This relates to very old aged people, that perhaps health issues are not fully the reason for cognitive decline.
In conclusion, the evidence suggests cognition is a natural part of the aging process. Jung and Haier prove that the parieto-frontal integration theory is a reliable model to use in determining those very old people have difficulty in reasoning due to their parietal lobe and frontal brain working slower and nerve fibers having deteriorated. Jung and Haier also prove, using the parieto-frontal integration theory, that very old people’s cerebral cortex, parietal lobe, and frontal brain interact and cause intelligence, reasoning, and communication to decline. The researchers suggest that very old people’s sensory areas work at a slower speed. Christensen also supports cognitive speed and memory decline with age. Together with Anstey, they argued that health problems were reasons for cognitive changes in very old adults. Christensen also evidenced that crystallized intelligence remains high and declines slightly from the age of 85. Applying the parieto-frontal integration theory to future studies is highly recommended in considering intelligence, reasoning, and communication in very old-aged people. It would be interesting moving forward for more research into very old people’s health on cognition, to see if there are any different response results.
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